Radiation source collimated at its source and then di­verges into a fan shape to reach detectors. This results in a cone beam.
Pixel (picture + element) is the smallest single component of a 2-D image, whereas a voxel is the small­est element...

When obtaining a panoramic film, one must be aware of the importance of following proper technique and carefully positioning the patient's skull between the X-ray generator and the film. Rotation of the film and radiation source often occurs along a...

Intra-oral radiography can provide sufficiently diagnostic information regarding a dentition and also, in many instances, also yield the necessary pre-surgical planning information for implant surgery. If panoramic radiography is not available...

Because any form or radiation can impose a risk, patient history and clinical examination should be performed first to ensure that the right kind of imaging is sought and unhelpful imaging is avoided.
The four main types of imaging tools utilized, and...

Physiological salivary output is 0.75 to 1.5 liters per day, with most originating from the submandibular glands. Saliva is a lubricant and has a complex set of protective and healing functions for the oral cavity. It adheres instantly to...

Epithelial desquamation in the oropharynx limits bacterial accumulation, except on the tongue dorsum and in the tonsillar crypts. Loss of teeth dramatically reduces the load of periodontal pathogens except for Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans and to a...

Radiographical check-ups to evaluate bone levels cannot be repeated too often to avoid unnecessary radiation. Monitoring the overlying soft tissues may help to identify eventual problems of the underlying bone, although the correlation...

A universally accepted definition of ideal occlusion has been elusive. This is because an ideal occlusion can only be defined in broad terms of a physiological range of form and function. Functional aspects of occlusion, rather than specific anatomical...

Saliva plays a significant role in the preservation and maintenance of oral health and function. It supports digestion by preparing food for mastication and swallowing, contributes to taste perception, facilitates speech communication and provides oral tissues...

Examination of existing dentures provides invaluable information on patients’ perceptions of teeth and soft tissue esthetics, including facial vertical dimension support. It also informs clinicians regarding their patients’ overall...

Routine evaluation of a patient’s temporo-mandibular joint function is an integral part of any oral examination.
Moreover, good muscular control and painless coordination of jaw movements are desirable in the management of edentulism...

The key to understanding maxillo-mandibular jaw relations from a patient-centered treatment point of view is to recognize the inseparable nature of the mandible’s two positions - vertical and horizontal. They can be discussed...

The recording of patient-specific vertical and horizontal jaw relations is a necessary starting point when planning for the occlusal rehabilitation. They are integral components of the mandible’s centric relation (CR)...

Most patients’ mouth opening readily permits access for routine prosthodontic and surgical treatment interventions. Limited mouth opening or microstomia is encountered in patients exposed to sclerodermia, diffuse systemic...

Optimal esthetic treatment outcomes require a harmonious reconciliation between lip morhology and teeth positioning. Lips provide a picture frame for the anterior teeth that support them; with mouth size and labial contours depending on genetically...